In his book entitled The Key to the Keystone, Jonah Barnes half-jokingly stated, “Satan spoke through (or embodied, or possessed, or sock-puppeted) a serpent when he tempted Eve in the Garden.”[1] While the image of Satan sock-puppeting a serpent does make me laugh, it is worth point out that in all seriousness, the scriptures do seem to be sending conflicting messages about Satan’s form during his stint in the Garden of Eden. On one hand, we have the Moses and Genesis accounts which state that Satan “spake [unto Adam and Eve] by the mouth of the serpent” (Moses 4:7), and on the other hand, we have sermons from the prophet Jacob and the Apostle Paul who tell us that Satan “beguiled our first parents, [and] transformed himself nigh unto an angel of light” (2 Nephi 9:9; 2 Corinthians 11:14). And to further complicate things, Barnes points out that there are as many as five different apocryphal records that mention Satan speaking through a serpent in the Garden of Eden,[2] and as many as five different apocryphal records that describe Satan as appearing to Adam and Eve as an angel of light.[3]

So, which one is it? Did Satan appear to Adam and Eve as himself, adorned with the robes of the priesthood in order to imitate an angel of light? Or did he actually speak to them through a serpent?

While looking for answers, it is important to remember that the story of the Fall is filled with symbolism, and it is often left up to us to determine what in the story is to be taken literally and what should be interpreted symbolically. Such may be the case with the serpent. Let us first examine the possibility that the serpent was used as a symbol, and then we will consider a more literal interpretation afterward.

The Serpent as a Symbol

If the Lord, in the Garden account, used a serpent to represent something, what would it be? If asked, most people would probably guess that a serpent represents evil, perhaps even Satan himself. The assumption for this logic is understandable, for serpents are deadly creatures, filled with venomous poison and feared by many. And after all, we read that Satan manipulated a serpent in order to deceive Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. But if we examine the scriptures, we find that the serpent actually had a dual meaning in the ancient world. LDS scholar Andrew Skinner explains: “Societies and scriptures of the Near East simultaneously attributed two highly symbolic roles to serpents. One role connected serpents to the heavens by having them represent deity, creative powers, and healing. The other linked them with the underworld and associated them with evil, harm, and destructive influences.”[4]

In other words, the symbol of the serpent most likely represented Christ originally, but according to Skinner, that symbol “was usurped and perverted by the quintessential false messiah, Satan.”[5] Thus, the serpent came to be an ancient symbol of both Christ and Satan.

The Brazen Serpent

A great example of this dual symbolism is in the story of the brazen serpent. In the book of Numbers, we read of the Lord sending fiery serpents among the camp of Israel (see Numbers 21:5-9). As a result, many were bitten, and many died. The Lord, as he often does, gave the children of Israel a chance to repent and be saved. He had Moses fix a brazen serpent on a pole and invited all who had been bitten to look upon it, and those who did were healed. This brazen serpent is an obvious type of Christ (see John 3:14-15), but, as Skinner observed, “the agent of both harm and healing, death and life, is, in this instance, the serpent.”[6]

Moses’ Staff

​In the book of Exodus, we find yet another example of a serpent representing both Christ and Satan. According to Skinner:

“In the early part of the story of Israel’s deliverance from Pharaoh, king of Egypt, Jehovah showed Moses in a dramatic way that He was the real God represented by the image of the serpent or snake, an image that Pharaoh himself wore on the front of his official headdress as a symbol of his own deity and sovereignty. (It will be remembered that every pharaoh was regarded as a living god on earth by his subjects.) When Moses threw down his staff, as commanded, it became a serpent. God told [Moses] that just such a demonstration should be conducted in front of Pharaoh and his court so that all would know that Jehovah was the one true God who had commissioned his representative, Moses, to stand before the false gods of the Egyptian people, which pantheon included Pharaoh himself (see Exodus 4:1–5, 8).

“When Moses and Aaron went before Pharaoh, they did exactly as the Lord had commanded. Their staff became a snake…. Either through sleight of hand or by demonic power, Pharaoh’s magicians were able to duplicate the action and turn their staffs into serpents as well. In what might be viewed as a quintessential showdown between God and the devil, the serpent of Jehovah swallowed up the serpents of Pharaoh as the God of Israel demonstrated his omnipotent supremacy (see Exodus 7:10–13). This scene dramatically illustrates the duality of serpent imagery in the scriptures. The one true God was represented by a serpent. The false gods of Egypt were also represented by serpents.”[7]

Serpent = Messiah

In addition to these two examples, there is further evidence that the serpent was a symbol for Christ specifically. According to LDS scholar Alonzo Gaskill, “In most ancient societies, letters and numbers were often used interchangeably, and each letter of an alphabet had a numerical value.”[8] This system of communication was called gematria. Richard Draper explained that in gematria, “the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for numbers one through nine, the next nine for numbers ten through ninety, and so on.”[9]

With this formula, each word could therefore be assigned a numerical value. And when two words had the same numerical value, they were considered synonyms.

We mention this because the Hebrew word for Messiah (mashiyakh) and the Hebrew word for serpent (nakhash) both have a numerical value of 358.[10] This simply helps to confirm that anciently, and especially in the Hebrew culture, the serpent was a symbol for Christ.

Satan as Serpent

​But as we mentioned previously, the symbol of the serpent was ultimately usurped by Satan, a counterfeit messiah. Speaking symbolically, the serpent in the Moses and Genesis narratives could simply be describing Satan’s attempt to get Adam and Eve to worship him as the messiah while in the Garden of Eden. Stated differently, when the prophet Jacob wrote that Satan “beguiled our first parents, [and] transformed himself nigh unto an angel of light” (2 Nephi 9:9), he could simply be trying to tell us that Satan presented himself to Adam and Eve as a false messiah, which is what the symbol of the serpent was meant to represent. Skinner wrote:

“The scriptures help us to see that Satan imitates and perverts every divine truth; every godly concept, principle, or practice; and every good and positive symbol, image, sign, and token in order to deceive and manipulate the souls of men. This even includes appearing as an angel of light (see Alma 30:53; D&C 128:20). By usurping and manipulating the symbol of the serpent, Satan tried to validate his false identity and his lies, insisting that following his ways would elevate our first parents to the status of the very God represented by the true image of the serpent (see Moses 4:10–11). Satan came to Eve clothed, as it were, in the garb of the Messiah, using the signs, symbols, and even the language of the Messiah, promising things that only the Messiah could rightfully promise.”[11]​

In other words, whether Satan is being described as speaking through a serpent, or whether he is described as approaching Adam and Eve adorned with priesthood power and authority as an angel of light in the form of a man, the meaning is the same: Satan’s goal in the Garden of Eden was to get Adam and Eve to worship him as their messiah and god.

A Literal Interpretation

While a symbolic interpretation of the serpent is one way to reconcile this issue, there are other LDS scholars who believe that Satan actually spoke through a literal serpent while in the Garden of Eden. For example, LDS author Cleon Skousen wrote: “The first step in Lucifer’s plan to beguile Adam and Eve was to cultivate the confidence of certain animals in the Garden of Eden who were of subtle intellects…. Why Lucifer wished to approach Adam and Eve indirectly through one of these [serpents] is not entirely clear, but he must have felt that his deceitful arguments, if delivered in person, would have been completely unacceptable to these two beings who had both participated in his expulsion from the mansions of the Father. In any event, we know that he either did not dare or did not desire to approach Adam and Eve directly. Instead, he used one of these serpents as his medium or spokesman.”[12]

Skousen would go on to give a few examples of a “most unusual but apparently possible phenomenon of animals being quickened and being permitted to express themselves intelligibly,” citing the story of Balaam’s donkey who spoke to Balaam after being struck by him (see Numbers 22:28), and John, who saw in a vision several resurrected animals in heaven praising God with their words (see Revelation 4:8).[13] Thus, it stands to reason that if animals can communicate with words after they are resurrected, then Satan very well could have spoken to Adam and Eve through a serpent while in the Garden of Eden.

But if this is true, how can we reconcile this interpretation with the scriptures that state Satan appeared to Adam and Eve as an angel of light?

Two Appearances from Satan

In his book, The Key to the Keystone, Barnes suggests that the two physical forms that Satan took while speaking to Adam and Eve (the serpent and the angel of light), are describing not one, but two different events. Barnes quotes the apocryphal Egyptian Life of Adam and Eve to make his argument, which states: “For the first time, [Satan] was hidden in the serpent; but this time he is come to you in the likeness of an angel of light.”[14]

Barnes explains that “the apocrypha are rife with infernal encounters [of Satan] after the Garden.”[15] During one such encounter, we read: “The devil came to [Eve], wearing the form and brightness of an angel.”[16] And according to another account: “Satan made an apparition. He began with transforming his hosts; in his hands was a flashing fire, and they were in a great light … And Satan did this, in order that when Adam saw the light, he should think within himself that it was a heavenly light, and that Satan’s hosts were angels.”[17] This same apocrypha text would then go on to reveal the very words that Satan would say unto Adam and Eve during this appearance: “O Adam, I am an angel of the great God; and behold the hosts that surround me.”[18] Furthermore, in yet another apocryphal text, we read that “the devil said to Adam: The earth is mine.”[19] Thankfully, in each of these encounters, Adam and Eve reject Satan’s lies and are eventually able to recognize him for who he is.

If these apocryphal accounts hold any merit, then when the prophet Jacob described Satan as appearing as an “angel of light” to Adam and Eve (2 Nephi 9:9), he was likely referencing one or more of these apocryphal stories—stories which occurred after Adam and Eve were cast out of the Garden of Eden.

The Brass Plates

If true, this opens up a whole new set of questions. For example, how did Jacob know about these apocryphal stories of Satan appearing to Adam and Eve as an angel of light? Keep in mind, the Old Testament makes no mention of this event. Thankfully, Barnes offered a compelling theory: “Jacob’s most likely source for such a story would have been the Josephite brass plates.”[20] He explained, “Jacob knew a story in which the devil transformed himself into an angel of light—and here one is,” referring to the apocrypha.[21] In other words, Barnes is suggesting that the brass plates likely contained a version of this apocryphal story somewhere within its metal pages. This also implies that the brass plates were not merely an earlier edition of our Old Testament, as previously assumed, but may have preserved much more ancient scripture than we originally thought.

Conclusion

In conclusion, there is nothing wrong with holding to a symbolic interpretation of Satan as a serpent because it correctly describes Satan’s attempt to deceive Adam and Eve into thinking he was their messiah while in the Garden. However, there is perhaps better evidence to suggest that Satan actually spoke to Adam and Eve through a serpent while in the Garden, and appeared to Adam and Even a second time as an angel of light after the Garden. Thus, the Moses and Genesis accounts which state that Satan “spake [unto Adam and Eve] by the mouth of the serpent” (Moses 4:7), and the verses from the Book of Mormon and the New Testament which tell us that Satan “beguiled our first parents [and] transformed himself nigh unto an angel of light” (2 Nephi 9:9; 2 Corinthians 11:14) can both be true, simply because they happened at different times in the narrative.

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Notes:

[1] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 42.

[2] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 43.

[3] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 43-44.

[4] Skinner, “Serpent Symbols & Salvation in The Ancient Near East and the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/2 (2001), p. 44, located here: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1288&context=jbms

[5] Skinner, “Serpent Symbols & Salvation in The Ancient Near East and the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/2 (2001), p. 44, located here: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1288&context=jbms

[6] Skinner, “Serpent Symbols & Salvation in The Ancient Near East and the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/2 (2001), p. 49, located here: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1288&context=jbms

[7] Skinner, “Serpent Symbols & Salvation in The Ancient Near East and the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/2 (2001), p. 49-50, located here: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1288&context=jbms

[8] Gaskill, The Lost Language of Symbolism, p. 111.

[9] Draper, Opening the Seven Seals, p. 149.

[10] See Gaskill, The Lost Language of Symbolism, p. 144.

[11] Skinner, “Serpent Symbols & Salvation in The Ancient Near East and the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/2 (2001), p. 54, located here: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1288&context=jbms

[12] Skousen, The First 2,000 Years, p. 51.

[13] Skousen, The First 2,000 Years, p. 52.

[14] Life of Adam and Eve 23:4, as quoted in Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 44; emphasis added.

[15] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 44.

[16] Jhitiye, 11-12, as quoted in Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 46

[17] Life of Adam and Eve 27:3-4, as quoted in Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 44.

[18] Life of Adam and Eve, 28:71, as quoted in Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 44.

[19] Testament of Adam, p. 20, as quoted in Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 45.

[20] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 46.

​[21] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 46.

In his book entitled The Key to the Keystone, Jonah Barnes half-jokingly stated, “Satan spoke through (or embodied, or possessed, or sock-puppeted) a serpent when he tempted Eve in the Garden.”[1] While the image of Satan sock-puppeting a serpent does make me laugh, it is worth point out that in all seriousness, the scriptures do seem to be sending conflicting messages about Satan’s form during his stint in the Garden of Eden. On one hand, we have the Moses and Genesis accounts which state that Satan “spake [unto Adam and Eve] by the mouth of the serpent” (Moses 4:7), and on the other hand, we have sermons from the prophet Jacob and the Apostle Paul who tell us that Satan “beguiled our first parents, [and] transformed himself nigh unto an angel of light” (2 Nephi 9:9; 2 Corinthians 11:14). And to further complicate things, Barnes points out that there are as many as five different apocryphal records that mention Satan speaking through a serpent in the Garden of Eden,[2] and as many as five different apocryphal records that describe Satan as appearing to Adam and Eve as an angel of light.[3]

So, which one is it? Did Satan appear to Adam and Eve as himself, adorned with the robes of the priesthood in order to imitate an angel of light? Or did he actually speak to them through a serpent?

While looking for answers, it is important to remember that the story of the Fall is filled with symbolism, and it is often left up to us to determine what in the story is to be taken literally and what should be interpreted symbolically. Such may be the case with the serpent. Let us first examine the possibility that the serpent was used as a symbol, and then we will consider a more literal interpretation afterward.

The Serpent as a Symbol

If the Lord, in the Garden account, used a serpent to represent something, what would it be? If asked, most people would probably guess that a serpent represents evil, perhaps even Satan himself. The assumption for this logic is understandable, for serpents are deadly creatures, filled with venomous poison and feared by many. And after all, we read that Satan manipulated a serpent in order to deceive Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. But if we examine the scriptures, we find that the serpent actually had a dual meaning in the ancient world. LDS scholar Andrew Skinner explains: “Societies and scriptures of the Near East simultaneously attributed two highly symbolic roles to serpents. One role connected serpents to the heavens by having them represent deity, creative powers, and healing. The other linked them with the underworld and associated them with evil, harm, and destructive influences.”[4]

In other words, the symbol of the serpent most likely represented Christ originally, but according to Skinner, that symbol “was usurped and perverted by the quintessential false messiah, Satan.”[5] Thus, the serpent came to be an ancient symbol of both Christ and Satan.

The Brazen Serpent

A great example of this dual symbolism is in the story of the brazen serpent. In the book of Numbers, we read of the Lord sending fiery serpents among the camp of Israel (see Numbers 21:5-9). As a result, many were bitten, and many died. The Lord, as he often does, gave the children of Israel a chance to repent and be saved. He had Moses fix a brazen serpent on a pole and invited all who had been bitten to look upon it, and those who did were healed. This brazen serpent is an obvious type of Christ (see John 3:14-15), but, as Skinner observed, “the agent of both harm and healing, death and life, is, in this instance, the serpent.”[6]

Moses’ Staff

​In the book of Exodus, we find yet another example of a serpent representing both Christ and Satan. According to Skinner:

“In the early part of the story of Israel’s deliverance from Pharaoh, king of Egypt, Jehovah showed Moses in a dramatic way that He was the real God represented by the image of the serpent or snake, an image that Pharaoh himself wore on the front of his official headdress as a symbol of his own deity and sovereignty. (It will be remembered that every pharaoh was regarded as a living god on earth by his subjects.) When Moses threw down his staff, as commanded, it became a serpent. God told [Moses] that just such a demonstration should be conducted in front of Pharaoh and his court so that all would know that Jehovah was the one true God who had commissioned his representative, Moses, to stand before the false gods of the Egyptian people, which pantheon included Pharaoh himself (see Exodus 4:1–5, 8).

“When Moses and Aaron went before Pharaoh, they did exactly as the Lord had commanded. Their staff became a snake…. Either through sleight of hand or by demonic power, Pharaoh’s magicians were able to duplicate the action and turn their staffs into serpents as well. In what might be viewed as a quintessential showdown between God and the devil, the serpent of Jehovah swallowed up the serpents of Pharaoh as the God of Israel demonstrated his omnipotent supremacy (see Exodus 7:10–13). This scene dramatically illustrates the duality of serpent imagery in the scriptures. The one true God was represented by a serpent. The false gods of Egypt were also represented by serpents.”[7]

Serpent = Messiah

In addition to these two examples, there is further evidence that the serpent was a symbol for Christ specifically. According to LDS scholar Alonzo Gaskill, “In most ancient societies, letters and numbers were often used interchangeably, and each letter of an alphabet had a numerical value.”[8] This system of communication was called gematria. Richard Draper explained that in gematria, “the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for numbers one through nine, the next nine for numbers ten through ninety, and so on.”[9]

With this formula, each word could therefore be assigned a numerical value. And when two words had the same numerical value, they were considered synonyms.

We mention this because the Hebrew word for Messiah (mashiyakh) and the Hebrew word for serpent (nakhash) both have a numerical value of 358.[10] This simply helps to confirm that anciently, and especially in the Hebrew culture, the serpent was a symbol for Christ.

Satan as Serpent

​But as we mentioned previously, the symbol of the serpent was ultimately usurped by Satan, a counterfeit messiah. Speaking symbolically, the serpent in the Moses and Genesis narratives could simply be describing Satan’s attempt to get Adam and Eve to worship him as the messiah while in the Garden of Eden. Stated differently, when the prophet Jacob wrote that Satan “beguiled our first parents, [and] transformed himself nigh unto an angel of light” (2 Nephi 9:9), he could simply be trying to tell us that Satan presented himself to Adam and Eve as a false messiah, which is what the symbol of the serpent was meant to represent. Skinner wrote:

“The scriptures help us to see that Satan imitates and perverts every divine truth; every godly concept, principle, or practice; and every good and positive symbol, image, sign, and token in order to deceive and manipulate the souls of men. This even includes appearing as an angel of light (see Alma 30:53; D&C 128:20). By usurping and manipulating the symbol of the serpent, Satan tried to validate his false identity and his lies, insisting that following his ways would elevate our first parents to the status of the very God represented by the true image of the serpent (see Moses 4:10–11). Satan came to Eve clothed, as it were, in the garb of the Messiah, using the signs, symbols, and even the language of the Messiah, promising things that only the Messiah could rightfully promise.”[11]​

In other words, whether Satan is being described as speaking through a serpent, or whether he is described as approaching Adam and Eve adorned with priesthood power and authority as an angel of light in the form of a man, the meaning is the same: Satan’s goal in the Garden of Eden was to get Adam and Eve to worship him as their messiah and god.

A Literal Interpretation

While a symbolic interpretation of the serpent is one way to reconcile this issue, there are other LDS scholars who believe that Satan actually spoke through a literal serpent while in the Garden of Eden. For example, LDS author Cleon Skousen wrote: “The first step in Lucifer’s plan to beguile Adam and Eve was to cultivate the confidence of certain animals in the Garden of Eden who were of subtle intellects…. Why Lucifer wished to approach Adam and Eve indirectly through one of these [serpents] is not entirely clear, but he must have felt that his deceitful arguments, if delivered in person, would have been completely unacceptable to these two beings who had both participated in his expulsion from the mansions of the Father. In any event, we know that he either did not dare or did not desire to approach Adam and Eve directly. Instead, he used one of these serpents as his medium or spokesman.”[12]

Skousen would go on to give a few examples of a “most unusual but apparently possible phenomenon of animals being quickened and being permitted to express themselves intelligibly,” citing the story of Balaam’s donkey who spoke to Balaam after being struck by him (see Numbers 22:28), and John, who saw in a vision several resurrected animals in heaven praising God with their words (see Revelation 4:8).[13] Thus, it stands to reason that if animals can communicate with words after they are resurrected, then Satan very well could have spoken to Adam and Eve through a serpent while in the Garden of Eden.

But if this is true, how can we reconcile this interpretation with the scriptures that state Satan appeared to Adam and Eve as an angel of light?

Two Appearances from Satan

In his book, The Key to the Keystone, Barnes suggests that the two physical forms that Satan took while speaking to Adam and Eve (the serpent and the angel of light), are describing not one, but two different events. Barnes quotes the apocryphal Egyptian Life of Adam and Eve to make his argument, which states: “For the first time, [Satan] was hidden in the serpent; but this time he is come to you in the likeness of an angel of light.”[14]

Barnes explains that “the apocrypha are rife with infernal encounters [of Satan] after the Garden.”[15] During one such encounter, we read: “The devil came to [Eve], wearing the form and brightness of an angel.”[16] And according to another account: “Satan made an apparition. He began with transforming his hosts; in his hands was a flashing fire, and they were in a great light … And Satan did this, in order that when Adam saw the light, he should think within himself that it was a heavenly light, and that Satan’s hosts were angels.”[17] This same apocrypha text would then go on to reveal the very words that Satan would say unto Adam and Eve during this appearance: “O Adam, I am an angel of the great God; and behold the hosts that surround me.”[18] Furthermore, in yet another apocryphal text, we read that “the devil said to Adam: The earth is mine.”[19] Thankfully, in each of these encounters, Adam and Eve reject Satan’s lies and are eventually able to recognize him for who he is.

If these apocryphal accounts hold any merit, then when the prophet Jacob described Satan as appearing as an “angel of light” to Adam and Eve (2 Nephi 9:9), he was likely referencing one or more of these apocryphal stories—stories which occurred after Adam and Eve were cast out of the Garden of Eden.

The Brass Plates

If true, this opens up a whole new set of questions. For example, how did Jacob know about these apocryphal stories of Satan appearing to Adam and Eve as an angel of light? Keep in mind, the Old Testament makes no mention of this event. Thankfully, Barnes offered a compelling theory: “Jacob’s most likely source for such a story would have been the Josephite brass plates.”[20] He explained, “Jacob knew a story in which the devil transformed himself into an angel of light—and here one is,” referring to the apocrypha.[21] In other words, Barnes is suggesting that the brass plates likely contained a version of this apocryphal story somewhere within its metal pages. This also implies that the brass plates were not merely an earlier edition of our Old Testament, as previously assumed, but may have preserved much more ancient scripture than we originally thought.

Conclusion

In conclusion, there is nothing wrong with holding to a symbolic interpretation of Satan as a serpent because it correctly describes Satan’s attempt to deceive Adam and Eve into thinking he was their messiah while in the Garden. However, there is perhaps better evidence to suggest that Satan actually spoke to Adam and Eve through a serpent while in the Garden, and appeared to Adam and Even a second time as an angel of light after the Garden. Thus, the Moses and Genesis accounts which state that Satan “spake [unto Adam and Eve] by the mouth of the serpent” (Moses 4:7), and the verses from the Book of Mormon and the New Testament which tell us that Satan “beguiled our first parents [and] transformed himself nigh unto an angel of light” (2 Nephi 9:9; 2 Corinthians 11:14) can both be true, simply because they happened at different times in the narrative.

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Notes:

[1] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 42.

[2] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 43.

[3] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 43-44.

[4] Skinner, “Serpent Symbols & Salvation in The Ancient Near East and the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/2 (2001), p. 44, located here: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1288&context=jbms

[5] Skinner, “Serpent Symbols & Salvation in The Ancient Near East and the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/2 (2001), p. 44, located here: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1288&context=jbms

[6] Skinner, “Serpent Symbols & Salvation in The Ancient Near East and the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/2 (2001), p. 49, located here: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1288&context=jbms

[7] Skinner, “Serpent Symbols & Salvation in The Ancient Near East and the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/2 (2001), p. 49-50, located here: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1288&context=jbms

[8] Gaskill, The Lost Language of Symbolism, p. 111.

[9] Draper, Opening the Seven Seals, p. 149.

[10] See Gaskill, The Lost Language of Symbolism, p. 144.

[11] Skinner, “Serpent Symbols & Salvation in The Ancient Near East and the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/2 (2001), p. 54, located here: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1288&context=jbms

[12] Skousen, The First 2,000 Years, p. 51.

[13] Skousen, The First 2,000 Years, p. 52.

[14] Life of Adam and Eve 23:4, as quoted in Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 44; emphasis added.

[15] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 44.

[16] Jhitiye, 11-12, as quoted in Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 46

[17] Life of Adam and Eve 27:3-4, as quoted in Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 44.

[18] Life of Adam and Eve, 28:71, as quoted in Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 44.

[19] Testament of Adam, p. 20, as quoted in Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 45.

[20] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 46.

​[21] Barnes, The Key to the Keystone, p. 46.